The development of herbal medicine can be traced back to ancient times, when humans first began to make connections between the natural world and its potential applications in health and healing. At the heart of this exploration lies a philosophical tool: analogical inference, an essential component of informal logic. Analogical inference has played a crucial role in generating new knowledge in unfamiliar territories, leveraging pre-existing common knowledge. It follows a format "A: a=B: (b)".
Constructing Hypotheses through Analogical Deduction
비류취상(比类取象)
Ancient Chinese thinkers, for instance, theorized about the 'meridian' system while managing the waterways, when they developed the territory around Yellow River. They utilized analogical inference to deduce the properties of unknown natural substances based on their appearance, smell, and taste. In traditional Chinese medicine, this concept is known as "비류취상(比类取象)" or "취상비류(取象比类)". The term 비류취상(比类取象) literally means obtaining an image (象) by comparing (比) types (类). Through this method, one can systematically reason about unfamiliar objects by using the process of analogical inference. This system was profoundly influential in the development of herbal medicine.
Ancient texts, such as the Inner Classic of Huangdi(Nei Jing), already highlight the importance of analogical inference. These classical works emphasize that the wisdom of the sages in treating diseases comes from observing and following the laws of nature, seeking metaphors and similarities, and embracing the mysteries of transformation. Not only does analogical inference serve as a bridge connecting rules and realities, but it also leads us closer to truth through reasoning.
『內經』에서는 이미 類比推理의 중요성을 설명하고 있는데 「示從容論」에서는 “汝受術誦書者, 若能覽觀雜學, 及於比類, 通合道理.”라 하여 귀납적 과정의 하나로 설명하고 있으며, “夫聖人之治病, 循法守度, 援物比類, 化之冥冥, 循上及下, 何必守經.”라 하여 유비적 사유의 중요성을 말하고 있다. 또한 같은 편에서 “不引比類, 是知不明也.”라 하였으며「徵四失論」에서도 “不知比類, 足以自亂, 不足以自明.”이라하여 단순히 比類가 법칙과 현실을 연결하는 고리의 역할 뿐만 아니라 사유를 통하여 진리에 접근하는 과정임을 밝히고 있다.[1]
'Similia similibus curantur'
Interestingly, a similar concept exists in the traditional medicine in other countries. The following is one example; https://imss.org/2019/06/21/entomotherapy-the-medical-use-of-insects/
Most notably, many different societies used insects based on the Doctrine of Signatures. Also known as “similia similibus,” or let likes be cured by likes, it holds that the appearance of an animal, plant, or other natural source is a signal for what uses it has for people (Meyer-Rochow). William Cole, a botanist in the 17th century, justified the Doctrine,
“the mercy of God…maketh…herbs for the use of men, and hath…given them particular Signatures, whereby a man may read…the use of them”
William Cole, The Doctrine of signatures
The signature hair on hairy ants, for example, meant that they had powers to cure baldness. Likewise, stick insects were used for weight loss and crickets for throat and ear ailments (Meyer-Rochow).
Doctrine of signatures: a plant with roots resembling the human hand, above, and a truncated hand, below. Coloured ink drawing, c. 1923, after a sixteenth-century woodcut illustration. Wellcome Collection.
The principle of 'Similia similibus curantur' is commonly translating to 'like cures like', is a foundational tenet of homeopathy established by Dr Samuel Hahnemann over 180 years ago. This idea, that similar ailments can be treated with similar substances, is not only a cornerstone of homeopathy but also has roots in ancient Greek medicine. For detail, check the end of this article; 'Contraria contrariis curantur' and 'Similia similibus curantur'
Ancient Chinese healers(and maybe all over the world) thought that natural substances resembling certain body organs could cure those organs. For example, kidney beans, resembling human kidneys, were thought to treat kidney ailments. Walnuts, mirroring the appearance of the brain and lungs, were believed to treat brain and lung conditions. Creatures with many joints, like scorpions, were assumed to treat joint disorders. These simplistic and primitive inferences led to the trial of therapeutic methods, including traditional Chinese medicine.
Empirical Validation through Inductive Reasoning
However, such simplistic and initially primitive reasoning did not always yield accurate results. Ancient healers, especially in China, tested these hypotheses, iteratively refining the practice of traditional Chinese medicine and herbal treatments through a process of validation and verification based on experience. This empirical approach to medicine is best exemplified in the legendary tale of Shennong, a divine entity known in ancient Chinese folklore as the founder of Chinese herbal medicine.
According to these narratives, Shennong personally tasted various herbs to determine their effects, even at the cost of his health. He endured episodes of fainting and bouts of drug toxicity during his exploratory journey. This begs the question, why would a divine entity need to test herbs firsthand to understand their effects? This tale underscores the significance of empirical experience in the evolution of herbal medicine. You can learn more about Shennong's fascinating story here.
https://acupunctureherbalmedicine.blogspot.com/2023/06/acupuncture-can-it-be-explained-with.html
In revisiting the history of herbal medicine through this article, it's clear that the practice's evolution has been heavily influenced by analogical inference. From the ancient Chinese herbalists to the pioneers of homeopathy in Europe, these healers leveraged the wisdom of nature through deductive inference and inductive experience, thus paving the path for contemporary herbal medicine.
**'Contraria contrariis curantur' and 'Similia similibus curantur'
In the practice of Hippocratic medicine, two distinct methods of treating symptoms were highlighted: 'Contraria contrariis curantur' and 'Similia similibus curantur'. These signify 'opposites cure opposites' and 'like cures like', respectively.
The principle of 'Similia similibus curantur' implies that a substance causing symptoms in a healthy person can be used to treat similar symptoms in an ailing person. The principle suggests that a substance that causes the symptoms of a disease in healthy people would cure similar symptoms in sick people. For instance, let's consider the case of a person with insomnia. According to homeopathy and the principle of "Similia similibus curantur", a substance that in large doses causes wakefulness in a healthy person, might be used in much smaller, often diluted, doses to treat a person with insomnia. This might be something like coffee, which is known to cause wakefulness. So, in homeopathic terms, a dilute solution of coffee, known as Coffea Cruda, may be used to treat certain forms of sleeplessness.
The principle of "Contraria contrariis curantur" can be illustrated with an example from ancient Greek medicine. Greek physicians believed that diarrhea, a condition characterized by loose or watery stools, could be treated with sand, given its dry properties. According to this belief, sand, being inherently dry, would counteract the excessive fluidity and moisture seen in diarrhea[3], thus restoring balance. This idea encapsulates the principle of "Contraria contrariis curantur" or "opposites are cured by opposites," with a dry substance being used to treat an overly wet condition.
[1] A Study on Formation of Oriental Medicine Theory based on Analogical Inference, Dep. of Oriental Medicine Classics, Kyung Hee University Dep. of Oriental Medicine Philosophy, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University Baik You-Sang, 백유상, 정우진. (2006). 유비추리(類比推理)를 통해 본 한의학(韓醫學) 이론구성(理論構成)의 과정. 대한한의학원전학회지, 19(4), 202-211.
[2] A Study on 'Idea of Uimul'(宜物思想) in Hwangjenaikyung(黃帝內經) , Park Choul, the Graduate School of Kyunghee University ․
[3] (http://www.britishcheloniagroup.org.uk/testudo/v5/v5n4hoare)